Literature Review: Looked After Children

Literature Review: Looked After Children Looked after children is the legislative term for children and young people in public care introduced in the 1989 Children Act and includes children who are subject to supervision and live with family members as well as looked after and accommodated children who live with foster carers or in residential schools or care homes. (Scottish Executive 2007) The Children (Scotland) Act 1995 adopted the term looked after, taking a lead from the earlier Children Act 1989 in England and Wales, because the expression in care had become pejorative and stigmatising. (Connelly, Seibelt and Furnivall 2008) These children have a right to expect to achieve the same educational outcomes the Government want for every child -to develop the knowledge, skills and attributes they will need if they are to succeed in life, learning and work, now and in the future. (Scottish Executive 2004 to date) (Department For Children, Schools And Families 2010) To allow LAC to achieve these outcomes successfully, local authorities as corporate parents (meaning the formal and local partnerships needed between all local authority departments and services, and associated agencies, who are responsible for working together to meet the needs of looked after children and young people) should demonstrate the strongest commitment to helping every child to achieve the highest educational standards he or she possibly can. (Scottish Executive 2007) Looked after children and young people face many barriers to their success in education. We take these children into care to improve their life chances, though some do well, despite the difficulties faced in other aspects of their lives, the educational achievement of looked after children as a group remains unacceptably low. (Department For Children, Schools And Families 2010) (Scottish Executive 2007)(Connelly and Chakrabarti 2008) (Department For Children, Schools And Families 2009)(Coulling 2000) Table 1 shows both information about the expected levels for most children at different school stages and also a comparison between the assessed levels for looked after children and non-looked after children nationally in 2003. This information has only been made available publicly once and is no longer collected as a result of the developments associated with Curriculum for Excellence. The table shows clearly the overall low achievement of looked after pupils compared with their non-looked after peers. Table 1: National Assessment Data 2003 (Scottish Government 2004) School stage Level attained English Reading English Reading English Writing English Writing Maths Maths Not LAC LAC Not LAC LAC Not LAC LAC P2 A or above 52% 29% 42% 20% 76% 57% P3 A or above 88% 74% 85% 69% 95% 89% P4 B or above 81% 56% 75% 50% 79% 52% P5 B or above 92% 73% 88% 64% 92% 73% P6 C or above 86% 59% 75% 40% 80% 46% P7 D or above 73% 34% 60% 20% 69% 24% However, as stated by the Scottish Government, this information is not complete. It only contains information from two thirds of local authority areas. Lack of complete data on Looked after Children is an issue spoken about frequently in articles and reports. (Jacklin, Robinson, and Torrance 2006) However, it is believed that the overall trends, which show a widening of the attainment gap between children who are and are not looked after, with each school stage, are accurate. The Social Exclusion Units report A Better Education for Children in Care (2003) identified five key reasons why looked after children underachieve in education: their lives are characterised by instability; they spend too much time out of school; they do not have sufficient help with their education if they fall behind; primary carers are not expected or equipped to provide sufficient support and encouragement for learning and development; and they have unmet emotional, mental and physical health needs that impact on their education These reasons are mirrored in other reports (Scottish Executive date unknown)(Scottish Government 2008)(Connelly, Seibelt and Furnivall 2008) but these also suggest that some LAC face so many difficulties in their lives that schooling seems to be of low priority to them and to the agencies providing support. They suggest that schooling is also often given insufficient priority when making and reviewing care plans. Despite the common perception in society that children in care are simply uninterested in learning, the vast majority (97 per cent) consider education important, with nearly two-thirds (61 per cent) giving future employment as the reason8. Many enjoy school, with around a third (35 per cent) identifying specific subjects or learning as their favourite aspect. (Social Exclusion Unit 2003) The stigma of being looked after can cause isolation, low self-esteem, difficulty in making friends, and bullying. Frequent moves of placement and school disrupt education. Difficult life events can affect concentration and the ability to make relationships. School can, potentially, be a very good and consistent experience for a looked after child or young person. (Scottish Executive date unknown) The children and young people themselves invariably say that education and educational attainment are important to them. They understand that how well they do at school with have an impact in their achievements in adulthood. (Scottish Government 2008) However, not all children in care have good experiences of school. They are 10 times more likely than others to be permanently excluded from school. Over a third say they have been excluded at some point. Six out of 10 say they have been bullied at school compared to roughly one in six of all children. One in eight missed five or more weeks schooling in 2001-2. (Social Exclusion Unit 2003) We believe the current levels of educational attainment can be transformed if the system is changed so that the joint efforts of all those who care about the learning of these children can have their maximum effect. (Department For Children, Schools And Families 2009) Executive, S., 2007. Looked after Children Young People : We can and must do Better. (Scottish Executive 2004 to date) Department For Children, S.A.F., 2010. Promoting the Educational Achievement of Looked After Children Statutory Guidance for Local Authorities, Connelly, G. Chakrabarti, M., 2008. Improving the educational experience of children and young people in public care: a Scottish perspective. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 12(4), pp.347-361 Department For Children, S.A.F., 2009. Improving the Educational Attainment of Children in care ( Looked after Children ) Attainment of Children in Care ( Looked after Children ), Social Exclusion Unit, 2003. Social Exclusion Unit Report A better education for children in care., Scottish Executive (date unknown) About looked after children. http://www.lookedafterchildrenscotland.org.uk/about/index.asp [accessed on 7th October 2010] Scottish Government, 2008. Count Us In. Improving the Education of our Looked after Children., Scottish Government (2004) Childrens Social Work Statistics 2003-04. Available online at: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2004/10/20121/45478 [accessed 11th January 2011] Connelly, G., Seibelt, L. Furnivall, J., 2008. Glasgow Project Report Supporting Looked After Children and Young People at School : A Scottish Case Study. Assessment. Jacklin, A., Robinson, C. Torrance, H., 2006. When lack of data is data: do we really know who our lookedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ after children are? European Journal of Special Needs Education, 21(1), pp.1-20. Coulling, N., 2000. Definitions of Successful Education for the Looked After Child: a Multi-agency Perspective. Support for Learning, 15(1), pp.30-35. Therapies for Cancer Treatment: An Analysis Therapies for Cancer Treatment: An Analysis Immunotherapy Better understanding of the biology of cancer cells has led to the development of biologic agents that mimic some of the natural signals that the body uses to control cell growth. Clinical trials have shown that this cancer treatment, called  biological response modifier (BRM) therapy,  biologic therapy,  biotherapy, or  immunotherapy, is effective for several cancers. Some of these biologic agents, which occur naturally in the body, can now be made in the lab. Examples are interferons, interleukins, and other cytokines. These agents imitate or influence the natural immune response of the body. By altering the cancer cell growth or by acting indirectly to help healthy cells control the cancer. One of the most exciting applications of biologic therapy has come from identifying certain tumor targets, called antigens, and aiming an antibody at these targets. This method was first used to find tumors and diagnose cancer and more recently has been used to treat cancer cells. Scientists produce monoclonal antibodies that are specifically targeted to chemical components of cancer cells. Refinements to these methods, using recombinant DNA technology, have improved the effectiveness and decreased the side effects of these treatments. The first therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, rituximab (Rituxan) and trastuzumab (Herceptin) were approved during the late 1990s to treat lymphoma and breast cancer, respectively. Monoclonal antibodies are now routinely used to treat certain cancers. Scientists are also studying vaccines that boost the body’s immune response to cancer cells. For instance, a 2009 lymphoma study looked at personalized vaccines made from tissue from each patient’s tumor. Encouraging results showed that patients who received the vaccine lived longer disease-free than those who did not. In 2010, the FDA approved Sipuleucel-T (Provenge), a cancer vaccine for metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer (prostate cancer that has spread and is no longer responding to hormone treatment). Unlike a preventive vaccine, which is given to prevent disease, Provenge boosts the body’s immune system’s ability to attack cancer cells in the body. This treatment helps certain men with prostate cancer live longer, though it does not cure the disease. Targeted therapy Until the late 1990s nearly all drugs used in cancer treatment (with the exception of hormone treatments) worked by killing cells that were in the process of replicating their DNA and dividing to form 2 new cells. These chemotherapy drugs also killed some normal cells but had a greater effect on cancer cells. Targeted therapies work by influencing the processes that control growth, division, and spread of cancer cells, as well as the signals that cause cancer cells to die naturally (the way normal cells do when they are damaged or old). Targeted therapies work in several ways. Growth signal inhibitors: Growth factors are hormone-like substances that help to tell cells when to grow and divide. Their role in fatal growth and repair of injured tissue was first recognized in the 1960s. Later it was realized that abnormal forms of growth factors or abnormally high levels of growth factors contribute to the growth and spread of cancer cells. Researchers also started to understand how cells recognize and respond to these factors, and how that can lead to signals inside the cells that cause the abnormal features found in cancer cells. Changes in these signal pathways have also been identified as a cause of the abnormal behaviour of cancer cells. During the 1980s, scientists found that many of the growth factors and other substances responsible for recognizing and responding to growth factor are actually products of oncogenes. Among the earliest targeted therapies that block growth signals are trastuzumab (Herceptin), gefitinib (Iressa), imatinib (Gleevec), and cetuximab (Erbitux). Current research has shown great promise for treatments in some of the more deadly and hard-to-treat forms of cancer, such as non-small cell lung cancer, advanced kidney cancer, and glioblastoma. Second-generation targeted therapies, like dasatinib (Sprycel) and nilotinib (Tasigna), have already been found to produce faster and stronger responses in certain types of cancer and were better tolerated. Angiogenesis inhibitors Angiogenesis is the creation of new blood vessels. The term comes from 2 Greek words: angio, meaning â€Å"blood vessel,† and genesis, meaning â€Å"beginning.† Normally, this is a healthy process. New blood vessels, for instance, help the body heal wounds and repair damaged tissues. But in a person with cancer, this same process creates new, very small blood vessels that give a tumor its own blood supply and allow it to grow. Anti-angiogenesis agents are types of targeted therapy that use drugs or other substances to stop tumors from making the new blood vessels they need to keep growing. This concept was first proposed by Judah Folk man in the early 1970s, but it wasn’t until 2004 that the first angiogenesis inhibitor, bevacizumab (Avastin), was approved. Currently used to treat advanced colorectal, kidney, and lung cancers, bevacizumab is being studied as treatment for many other types of cancer, too. Many new drugs that block angiogenesis have become available since 2004. Apoptosis-inducing drugs Apoptosis is a natural process through which cells with DNA too damaged to repair – such as cancer cells – can be forced to die. Many anti-cancer treatments (including radiation and chemotherapy) cause cell changes that eventually lead to apoptosis. But targeted drugs in this group are different, because they are aimed specifically at the cell substances that control cell survival and death. Novel Approaches for Cancer Treatment Liposomes: Liposomes were first introduced by Bangham in 1965 and afterwards became the most popular and versatile tool in controlled and targeted drug delivery.Since liposomes were first described 45 years ago [19] they have gained interests for a variety of applications including drug delivery [20].Liposomes used for drug delivery are usually about 100 nm in size and are made up of a single bilayer. As liposomes comprise an aqueous core sealed off by a PL membrane both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs can be accommodated in their respective compartments [18].Liposomes consist of spherical lipid bilayers that can be produced from phospholipids and cholesterol. Liposomes can encapsulate a variety of molecules, such as small drug molecules, proteins and many other bioactive(s). These vesicles are generally considered as biodegradable and imperceptibly immunogenic,and can also be used for a large number of biomedical applications. Recently, DOX and fluoxetine encapsulated liposomes hav e been reported to be effective formulation against drug-resistant MCF-7 cells. It was observed that liposomes significantly reduced tissue bio distribution of anticancer agents with improvedcytotoxicity. Liposomes are simple colloidal vesicles with an aqueous interior enclosed by a membrane usually composed of phospholipid (PL) molecules. PLs, the major components of biological membrane are amphiphilic compounds with a polar head group and lipophilic acyl chains. PLs can be classified according to type of polar head group, fatty acid chain length and degree of saturation.When bilayer forming PLs are dispersed in aqueous media they will spontaneously align themselves in a manner to reduce interactions between the polar media and the hydrophobic fatty acid chains. Consequently, bilayer structures, i.e. liposomes, may be formed. Liposomes may consist of one or more bilayers (lamellae) and of sizes ranging from tens of nanometres to tens of micrometres in diameter. For a review see [17 ]. Liposomes are broadly classified into small unilamellar vesicles (SUV); single bilayer, size 10 100 nm), large unilamellar vesicles (LUV); single bilayer, size 100 1000 nm), multilamellar vesicles (MLV), several bilayers, size 100 nm 20 um and multivesicular vesicles (MVV), size 100 nm – 20um). Today there are about 15 liposomal based formulationdrugs approved for clinical applications or undergoing clinical evaluation,Liposomes in cancer treatment Conventional cytostatic used in cancer treatment are small molecular weight molecules [4]. Such molecules distribute non-specifically to both healthy and tumour tissue resulting in therapy limiting toxicities. To increase the therapeutic-to-toxicity ratio cytostatic can be encapsulated into small liposomes (~100 nm), which accumulate in tumours due to the 14enhanced permeability and retention effect [21]. Here, leaky tumour vessels allow macromolecules to extravagate into tumour tissue, whilst reduced lymphatic tumour drainage results in particle accumulation. First generation liposomes used for drug delivery suffered from fast clearance by cells of the monocyte phagocyte system (MPS). By coating liposomes with polyethylene glycol (PEG), i.e. PEGylated liposomes, adhesion of plasma proteins and opsonin to liposomes are decreased. Consequently, immune system recognition is reduced, decreasing MPS uptake and prolongs circulation time [22]. Today, most liposomes used for drug delivery are PEGylated. Cancer is a class of diseases. Which is characterized by out-of-control cell growth.There are over 100 different types of cancer, and each is classified by the type of cell that is initially affected. Nanotechnology has been extensively exploited to improve conventional cancer therapy in the recent years [1–5]. The designed nanocarriers for achieving precise drug delivery to cancer cells are expected to be non-cytotoxic, efficiently load the drugs, enhance the circulation time in bloodstream, and actively target the cancer cells[6]. The nanocarriers currently under intensive investigation can be divided into two categories in generalise. The lipid-based and the polymer-based with liposomes and polymeric nanoparticle as their typical representative respectively. Liposomes, the spherical vesicles formed by single or multiple lipid bilayer, have been widely used due to their high biocompatibility, favourable pharmacokinetic profile, high delivery efficiency and ease of surface modification. In the recent years, several liposomal drug formulations have been approved for clinical use [7]. Limitations of liposomal drug delivery: include insufficient drug loading, fast drug release, and instability in storage [8]. Historically, lipids have been used for several decades in various drug delivery systems including liposomes solid lipid NPs, nano structured lipid carriers, andlipid–drug conjugates. Over the last decade, lipid based nano carriers are viewed as potential tool to encapsulate and deliver variety of pharmaceutical actives[44,45]. The solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are the first and second generation of lipid nanoparticles, respectively. The SLNs are composed of solid lipid or a blend of solid lipids while NLCs contain a mixed lipid core (solid fat and oil)[45]. generally regarded as safe [GRAS] nature of lipid and the structural integrity of the polymer. Thus far, the polymers such as polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) [46,47], hydrolysed polymer of epoxidized soybean oil (HPESO) [48,49], dextran [50], polyethyleneimine (PEI) [51], LPNs, are prepared by at least three main components are i.e., the lipid, the polymer, and a drug. The fir st way to prepare the LPNPs is to mix the polymeric NPs with liposomes to form the lipid-shell and polymer-core nanoparticles such as lipoparticles where the lipid bilayer or lipid multilayer of the liposomes fuses on the surface of the polymeric NPs.[52–53] The second way to prepare the LPNPs has advantage over the first way in formulating the structured NPs in a single step and thus provides a simpler technology, which combines the nanoprecipiation method and the self-assembly technique to produce the desired structured NPs of lipid shell and polymer core [54,55]Folic acid is selected as the model molecular probe for targeted delivery of the drug to the cancer cells of folate overexpression such as certain breast cancer and ovarian cancer cells. Poly (lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), one of the most popular FDA approved non-cytotoxic and biodegradable polymers,is used to form the polymer core matrix, which is wrapped by the mixed lipid monolayer shell of three distinct functio nal components:(i) 1,2-dilauroylphosphatidylocholine (DLPC), a phospholipid of an appropriate hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value which is employed to stabilize the NPs in the aqueous phase;(ii) 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (DSPE-PEG2k), a PEGlyated DSPE to facilitate stealth NPs formulation to escape from recognition by the reticuloendothelial system (RES) and thus increase the systemic circulation time of the LPNPs[28,29],and(iii)1,2-distearoyl-snglycero-3-phosphoethanolamineN[folate(polyethylene glycol)-5000] (DSPE-PEG5k-FOL), a PEGylated DSPE of longer PEG chains for the LPNPs to be functionalized by folic acid conjugation for targeted delivery purpose. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONS as delivery systems) Super paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) have emerged as an MRI contrast agent for tumor imaging due to their efficacy and safety. Their utility has been proven in clinical applications with a series of marketed SPION-based contrast agents. Extensive research has been performed to study various strategies that could improve SPION by tailoring the surface chemistry and by applying additional therapeutic functionality. Research into the dual-modal contrast uses of SPION has developed because these applications can save time and effort by reducing the number of imaging sessions. In addition to multimodal strategies, efforts have been made to develop multifunctional nanoparticles that carry both diagnostic and therapeutic cargos specifically for cancer. Advances in nanotechnology have permitted new possibilities for theranostics, which are defined as the combination of therapy and imaging within a single platform [56, 57]. Nanotechnology is applied to molecular imaging in the form of imaging probes capable of enhancing the sensitivity of the image and the specificity toward the target tissue. Usually, the imaging probeconsists of nanoparticles conjugated with active targeting ligands [58, 59]. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) have a superparamagnetic iron core, which makes them useful as T2 contrast agents for MRI. SPION can be detected withhigh sensitivity, and both the iron and polymer components of SPION are biocompatible and degradable [60].The size of iron oxide nanoparticles plays a major rolein target cell uptake and elimination from the body. Spleen and liver capture nanoparticles of more than 200 nm in diameter whereas particles having sizes below 10 nm are selectively filtered by renal systems and eliminated from body [61].The majority of nanoparticles in development include drug conjugates and complexes, micelles, dendrimers, vesicles, core–shell particles, microbubbles, and carbon nanotubes [62]. Dendrimer-based Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment Nanotechnology has led to a remarkable convergence of disparate fields including biology, applied physics, optics, computational analysis, and modeling, as well as materials science. Because of this, the application of nano scale analytical, computational, and synthetic approaches to understanding and manipulating complex biological systems offers incredible potential for advances in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Recent work has suggested that nanoparticles in the form of dendrimers may be a keystone in the future of therapeutics. The field of oncology could soon be revolutionized by novel strategies for diagnosis and therapy employing dendrimer-based nano therapeutics. Several aspects of cancer therapy would be involved. Diagnosis using imaging techniques such as MRI will be improved by the incorporation of dendrimers as advanced contrast agents. This might involve novel contrast agents targeted specifically to cancer cells. Dendrimers can also be being applied to a variety of cancer therapies to improve their safety and efficacy. A strategy, somewhat akin to the â€Å"Trojan horse,† involves targeting anti-metabolite drugs via vitamins or hormones that tumors need for growth. Further applications of dendrimers in photodynamic therapy, boron neutron capture therapy, and gene therapy for cancer are being examined.Most cancer therapeutics are small drug molecules that after being ingested or injected into the bloodstream can easily diffuse through vascular pores and the extracellular matrix to reach tumors. Complex therapeutics that involve drug delivery mechanisms or imaging moieties have tended to be much larger. While the exact size of molecules thatcan easily transverse vascular pores from the bloodstream and reach tumor tissue is unclear, it is probably limited to the size of proteins (

Mandatory Minimum Sentences Are Not Effective Essay -- Mandatory Minim

Mandatory minimum prison sentences are punishments that are set through legislation for specific offenses. They have been used throughout history for different crimes. The four traditional goals of punishment are: deterrence, incapacitation (incarceration), retribution, and rehabilitation. With the state of our national economy, cutting prison and corrections costs would be a huge savings. On the surface, it may seem that mandatory minimum sentences would serve the traditional goals of punishment. They would discourage potential criminals, keep society safe for longer periods of time, they would punish the offender and they would rehabilitate the offender. What they did not do, however, is take into account the individual circumstances of each case and each defendant. Mandatory minimum sentences are not effective and they should be repealed. The United States enacted mandatory minimum sentences for drug convictions beginning in 1951 with the Boggs Act. The Boggs Act provided both mandatory minimum sentences for first-time drug convictions and it increased the length of sentences for subsequent convictions. In 1956, the Narcotics Control Act increased the minimum sentences spelled out in the Boggs Act. It also forbade judges from suspending sentences or imposing probation in cases where they felt a prison sentence was inappropriate. In 1970, the Nixon Administration and Congress negotiated a bill that sought to address drug addiction through rehabilitation; provide better tools for law enforcement in the fight against drug trafficking and manufacturing; and provide a more balanced scheme of penalties for drug crimes. The final product, the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, repealed man... ...tp://www.newyorkcriminalattorneyblog.com/2009/01/a_brief_history_of_federal_man.html History of Mandatory Minimums. (2005, August 31). [Brochure]. Retrieved from http://www.famm.org/Repository/Files/Updates%20short%20HISTORY.pdf Mandatory Minimum Sentences [Briefing]. (n.d.). Retrieved August 2, 2010, from Connecticut General Assembly website: http://www.cga.ct.gov/2005/pridata/Studies/Mandatory_Minimum_Sentences_Briefing.htm McVay, D., Schuraldi, V., & Ziedenberg, J. (n.d.). Treatment or Incarceration? Retrieved from Justice Policy Institute website: http://www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/04-01_REP_MDTreatmentorIncarceration_AC-DP.pdf Sabol, W. J., PhD., & Couture, H. (2008, June). Prison Inmates at Midyear 2007 (NCJ No. 3221994). Retrieved from US Department of Justice website: http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/pim07.pdf

Disneyland Resort Paris Case Study

I believe that managers should adapt the resort to more local cultures for the 15th Anniversary in 2007. Even if Disney adapts to the local culture there is still going to be a sense of the American Disney World in the theme. Disney has expanded to countries all over the world yet they cannot change the fact that the characters are the same wherever they go. There is always going to be a Winnie the Pooh and Lion King and cultures all over the world view the American made movies. However; like mentioned in the case, I believe that even though very little of Disney’s core product needs adaptation, they must focus and change how they position and sell their product in each of the markets. To one market Mickey may mean something totally different to another. In order to be successful I believe that they do have to alter the way they do things from country to country and culture to culture. If they do not adapt to the local culture they could see more financial instability like they did in the past and they may see less people coming to their parks in Paris. One of the mistakes mentioned in the case was about how Disney did not serve alcohol in the park when it first opened and how they had to change that to meet the needs of their consumers and even this minor mess-up was not forgotten by the locals and it took them a long time to get over it. I think Disney could implement my suggestion by looking deeper into the cultures of the surrounding countries and the people who travel to the Paris park and research what they want and what would make their experience better. Also, look into their cultures and figure out how they like to do things. There are numerous countries and cultures that travel to Disneyland Paris and it is hard to get a grip on who the average consumer is and what they look like. This is where Disney really needs to meet the needs of numerous culture and people.

Comparison Of Utilitarianism And Emotivism - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2435 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/08/08 Category Ethics Essay Level High school Tags: Utilitarianism Essay Did you like this example? Utilitarianism Emotivism The first question which was ever asked by the conscious man was, perhaps, what is right and what is wrong. Today, thousands of years later, we struggle still with that very idea. One may find their truth in their own lifetime, but as they die their truth does not remain, rather, the question is born anew with the next generation, and only remnants of their conclusions linger. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Comparison Of Utilitarianism And Emotivism" essay for you Create order And so, I explore what is right and wrong, here, in 2018, at the University of Southern Indiana, since I cannot accept the answers of my forefathers without my own questionings. Thinkers of old tell us of things like Utilitarianism and Emotivism. They tried, through these theories, to teach us how to handle the trials of life, such as abortion, capital punishment, and euthanasia. Now, though, I will sift through a few of the theories which seek to describe our being, Utilitarianism and Emotivism, and find what they may tell us today of abortion, capital punishment, and euthanasia. Section 1 Ethical Theories Utilitarianism. General Beliefs Utilitarianism is the belief that what is right is the course which provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. That, of itself, is a very broad statement, which philosophers have broken down into two main flavors. There is act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism states that what is right for the greatest number of people should be considered for each circumstance from a point of view which is independent of any pre-standing laws or moral conceptions. Rule utilitarianism differs in that it considers what is right in a circumstance to be not only governed by what will provide the greatest good, but also by what follows the laws of man or generally accepted moral rules. The main tenant of utilitarianism is that the pleasure of one must be sacrificed for the pleasure of many (Driver, 2009). Utilitarianism Standards-Setter The moral compass of Utilitarianism is set by the quantity of good of one path versus another. Specifically, hedonic calculus, laid out by Jeremy Benthall, is intended to calculate the overall good of one decision versus another. By deriving which path will cause the greatest good, not just good for oneself and family, the right and moral path can be chosen (Driver, 2009). Utilitarianism Applied to Utilitarianism, both the Act and Rule sects, is viewed to apply to all people, everywhere, throughout history. No one is exempt from the utilitarian rule of choosing the greatest good for the greatest number of people. There has never been a king, nor beggar, who should have not first considered the well-being of the masses before eating his bread. Utilitarianism is all encompassing (Smart, 1961). Utilitarianism- Cultural Displays It was with great risk during the Holocaust, that certain brave and utilitarian citizens of Germany, and their controlled lands, risked their own lives to preserve those of the persecuted Jewish people. The harboring of the Jews, an act which would fall under Act Utilitarianism since it disobeyed the laws of the land at that time, was an act which forgot the happiness of the individual in order to give small happiness to the many hiding Jews, and thus was a grand example of utilitarianism. Also, one must recall one of the greatest stories ever told, that of King Leonidas and his 300 (more like a couple thousand) Spartans and how they sacrificed themselves to slow the Persian advance so the rest of the country could prepare. This act fulfilled the wishes of the utilitarian Greeks, who wanted nothing more than to sacrifice themselves, to preserve the larger population back home. In fact, thats what the entire Spartan military was based around. Utilitarianism- Strengths One of the greatest strengths of utilitarianism is that it is a simple idea, almost intuitive, that everyone can understand and apply in their own life if they so choose. Another strength is that it protects the little guy. Utilitarianism does not consider the difference between people, it just states, if people are involved, pick the path that hands out as much happiness as possible. Utilitarianism- Weaknesses Utilitarianism has quite a few weaknesses, here are some of the big ones. The absolute biggest is that it puts too much focus on happiness. Happiness, in and of itself, is a silly goal, because life will occasionally make us unhappy no matter what we do, so its good to focus on some other aspects of life aside from just being happy. Life upsetting our happiness brings us to the next weakness; how can we predict the future? The whole idea of decision making in Utilitarianism is that one chooses the path most likely to bring about the most happiness. Life doesnt usually run with our plans, though, and many times a decision we might think is great, ends up making people miserable (Williams, 1973). Utilitarianism- Personal View I agree with most of what Utilitarianism expresses, however, I disagree strongly when it attempts to be universal. Sometimes, the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people must be ignored, and I detest the idea of sacrificing a few for the many as a rule of thumb. It is a dangerous game when we indulge the human lust for happiness, sure Benthall tried to compensate for this obvious flaw by chiding not to lust after things of the flesh, but I believe that we should lust after nothing too greatly, even happiness, that goes against the rule of moderation. We should learn to endure the low points and the struggle, so we might better appreciate the happiness when it comes. And, the idea of giving humans the happiness they always desire is dangerous to the natural world. Im sure many people would be quite happy to have their own beach house on the Galapagos Islands, but at what cost to nature would that human happiness come? As a general guideline, though, Utilitariani sm does very well. In day to day choices, by all means, aim for the greatest happiness, but be weary of the exceptions. Emotivism- General Beliefs Emotivism argues that one cannot claim that anything ir moral or immoral, because their response to an issue is based only on their emotional response, not any certain morality. The guiding phrase of Emotivism is Only statements that can be verified empirically can be true or false. This quote was originally said by A.J. Ayer, one of the founders and contributors to the philosophy of emotivism. His statement essentially means that there can be no truth or falseness in a moral claim since either direction cannot be proven empirically (Satris, 1987). Emotivism- Standards-Setter The idea of Emotivism essentially leaves no room for anything being moral or immoral. When a person deems an action wrong, or immoral, a subscriber to emotivism simply replies that their reaction is only an emotional response to the matter at hand. The claim is that there is no solid basis in science behind ones reaction to an immoral act, therefore, any reaction had by a personal is irrational and cannot be forced upon another person (Satris, 1987). Emotivism- Applied to Emotivism applies to everyone, in that no one can make a claim of morality or immorality. The theory holds all people equal in that no one can prove whether or not their own feelings are true for everyone, therefore they cannot be true at all (Stoljar, 1993). Emotivism- Cultural Displays It is quite difficult to find examples of a society working off an Emotivist schematic since it is quite difficult to have a society in which everyone can do what they want. However, one such example could be the golden triangle of Southeast Asia, where between gang members, there is no moral judgement cast, only the necessity to carry out their jobs. Another such example were the Mongols which once ruled the Eurasian steppe. As they carried out their raids upon neighboring kingdoms, little to no moral compass guided the warriors, all aversion to the slaughter was seen as cowardice, which could be seen as an emotional response and not a moral call. Emotivism- Strengths One of the greatest strengths of emotivism is that the theory includes all people and considers them equal in their inability to cast moral judgement. Another strong quality of the theory is that it does not restrict people too tightly, it allows for a great deal of freedom in what people are morally allowed to do. Emotivism- Weaknesses Emotivism has many weaknesses. The most damning of these weaknesses is the fact that emotivism fails to consider the arguments which can be debated scientifically as well as morally, regardless of ones emotional response, such as abortion. Another very large issue is that if no one can say what is right or wrong, then no one can punish another for their actions, and, therefore, people are free to run about and do whatever they please, and what is left is total anarchy. Emotivism- Personal Ideas I believe that Emotivism is a completely preposterous idea. The notion that there is no inherent moral code in mankind is completely ridiculous. Emotivism ignores thousands and thousands of years of human experience and survival that teaches us the best way to survive. I believe this development is what we call morals and emotivism throws it all away to place the moral heart of humanity in the hands of our most flippant attribute, emotions! The moral code of man has, for the most part, stood for hundreds of years, yet our emotions blow as the breeze changes. Emotivism has gone out of style in recent years, and I think that is no less than it merits. Section 2- Ethical Applications Utilitarianism- Abortion Abortion is the action of killing and removing an unborn fetus from the mothers womb. This practice is carried out all over the world for several reasons, some of the most common among these are as follows; a lack of financial capabilities, incest, rape, and also just not wanting to have a child. Utilitarianism would possibly condone abortion if the act would make more people happy than just one person. Using hedonic calculus, the unhappiness of the fetus not being born would have to be compensated by more than just the mothers life being made easier. Perhaps, if both the father and mother felt their lives would be better without having the child, then Utilitarianism would approve of abortion. Emotivism- Abortion Abortion, as stated above, is the killing and removal of an unborn fetus. Emotivism would most certainly approve of abortion. The theory would argue that anyone who thinks abortion is morally wrong because it is the killing of a fetus, is simply repulsed by the idea of it and is emotionally disgusted. The emotivist would tell a woman debating an abortion to go for it, since there is no proof that what she is doing is wrong to begin with. Utilitarianism- Euthanasia Euthanasia is the killing of person who wishes to pass. A person wishing for euthanasia may want it for a number of reasons. One could desire it because of an illness, old age, or depression. There are also many different flavors of euthanasia, but for this paper we will focus upon voluntary euthanasia. The debate comes with whether it is ethical for a doctor, who has taken the Hippocratic Oath to never do harm, to force the passing of a human being. The utilitarian thinker would not approve of euthanasia if the subject had many loved ones that would be devastated at their passing since that is happiness for one, but unhappiness for many. However, if the subject was alone and would not be missed, Utilitarianism would smile upon euthanasia as a very morally righteous deed. Emotivism- Euthanasia Euthanasia, as was stated above, is the killing of a patient who desires death. Since emotivism does not concern itself with the morality of breaking the Hippocratic Oath, or making loved ones unhappy, it would have no problem with euthanasia being a perfectly acceptable thing to do. Euthanasia would not be moral under the theory, since nothing is, but it would be acceptable. Utilitarianism- Capital Punishment Capital punishment is the government ordered execution of a criminal of the highest order. It is the greatest sentence that US courts are capable of handing out, and that is not in all states, some states have banned these executions. Utilitarianism, would, however, never ban these executions. If the legal process of getting to the execution could be carried out more effectively, then capital punishment would save a lot of money for the government, which comes from tax payers pockets. Also, capital punishment assures that a heinous criminal will never be free again. These factors considered, Utilitarianism would approve of capital punishment. Emotivism- Capital Punishment Capital Punishment, as covered previously, is the government ordered execution of a criminal. Emotivism would chuckle at the idea of capital punishment being immoral. Under emotivism, it cannot be proved that even killing an innocent is morally wrong, so the killing of a murderer is just given free game. The theory would say to anyone that doesnt agree with killing that they just have weak stomachs for the matter and are therefore just having negative emotions about the matter Conclusion In this paper I have discussed the ethical theories of Emotivism and Utilitarianism, and their applications to the matters of abortion, euthanasia, and capital punishment. Through writing on the subject, I have formed my own picture of Utilitarianism. The picture looks like this; Utilitarianism is a middle-aged woman, I see my mother, who cant help but be a people pleaser. She tries so hard to make as many people as possible happy, that she ends up making bad choices and neglecting herself and those that are most important to her. Im afraid that utilitarianism falls into this trap. It is too focused on providing the maximum amount of happiness to always protect what is truly important. However, most of the time, like a people pleaser, utilitarianism handles itself well and is able to provide good for many. Emotivism, however, has painted quite a gloomy image of itself in my mind. One can probably gather from my examples of who has used Emotivism in the sections above, but I can see n o decent group of people agreeing with emotivism. Notice I say decent people, and I define these decent people as people having great value to themselves and their fellow man, and caring for what is important in life, and living in a compassionate way. But Emotivism comes to close to promoting the opposite of a decent moral life for me to care for it at all.